The Kru languages are spoken by the Kru people from the southeast of Liberia to the west of Ivory Coast.
Classification
According to Güldemann (2018), Kru lacks sufficient lexical resemblances and noun class resemblances to conclude a relationship with Niger-Congo.
Glottolog considers Kru an independent language family.
Etymology
The term "Kru" is of unknown origin. According to Westermann (1952) it was used by Europeans to denote a number of tribes speaking related dialects. Marchese (1989) notes the fact that many of these peoples were recruited as "crew" by European seafarers; "the homonymy with crew is obvious, and is at least one source of the confusion among Europeans that there was a Kru/crew tribe".
History
Andrew Dalby noted the historical importance of the Kru languages for their position at the crossroads of African-European interaction. He wrote that "Kru and associated languages were among the first to be encountered by European voyagers on what was then known as the
Pepper Coast, a centre of the production and export of
Guinea pepper and
melegueta pepper; a once staple African seaborne trade".
The Kru languages are known for some of the most complex tone systems in Africa, rivaled perhaps only by the
Omotic languages.
Current status
Recent documentation has noted "Kru societies can now be found along the coast of
Monrovia,
Liberia to
Bandama River in Côte d'Ivoire".
"Villages maintain their ties based on presumed common descent, reinforced by ceremonial exchanges and gifts".
[ The Kru people and their languages, although now many speak English (in Liberia) or French (in Côte d'Ivoire) as a second language, are said to be "dominant in the southwest region where the forest zone reaches the coastal lagoons".][ The Kru people rely on the forest for farming, supplemented by hunting for their livelihood.
]
Subgroups and associated languages
The Kru languages include many subgroups such as Kuwaa language, Grebo language, Bassa language, Belle, Belleh, Kwaa and many others. According to Breitbonde, categorization of communities based on cultural distinctiveness, historical or ethnic identity, and socio-political autonomy "may have brought about the large number of distinct Kru dialects; "Although the natives were in many respects similar in type and tribe, every village was an independent state; there was also very little intercommunication".
Marchese's (1989) classification of Kru languages is as follows.[Marchese, Lynell. 1989. Kru. In Bendor-Samuel, John (ed.), The Niger-Congo Languages: A Classification and Description of Africa's Largest Language Family, 119-139. Lanham MD, New York & London: Lanham: University Press of America.] Many of these languages are and are sometimes considered more than a single language.
Ethnologue adds Neyo language, which may be closest to Dida or Godie.
Grammar
Kru word order is primarily subject-verb-object (SVO), but can also often be subject-object-verb (SOV).
Comparative vocabulary
Sample basic vocabulary of 12 Kru languages from Marchese (1983):[Marchese, Lynell. 1983. Atlas linguistique Kru: nouvelle edition. Abidjan: Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique (ACCT).]
|
| dώ |
| ɲɔ̃́ |
| ɲnɪ̃̂ |
| ɲnẽ̂ |
| ɲéɲé |
| ŋʉ̂nɪ̂ |
| ŋʉ́ɲɪ́ |
| jlɪ́ |
| ŋʉ́nʉ́ |
| ŋɨ́nɨ́ |
| ŋlɪ́ |
| — |
An additional sample basic vocabulary of 21 Kru languages from Marchese (1983):
|
| |
| |
| ŋlɪ́ |
| ŋɨ́nɨ́ |
| ŋʉ́nʉ́ |
| jlɪ́ |
| nʉ́nɪ́ |
| nʉ̀nɪ̂ |
| ɲéné |
| ɲnẽ̂ |
| ɲnɪ̃̂ |
| ɲi |
| ɲírṍ |
| nrɪ |
| dώ |
| ɲéné |
| ɲnɛ̃́ |
| ŋɛ́nɛ́ |
| ŋɛ́lɛ́ |
| ɲɛlɛ̃ |
| jĩ |
Numerals
Comparison of numerals in individual languages:
|
| kowaa |
| fú |
| fu1 |
| pʊ̀ |
| ŋʷũ⁴² bu⁴ or bu⁴ |
| kʊ́ɡ͡ba |
| kʊ́ɡ͡ba |
| kʊ́ɡ͡bá |
| kō.ɡ͡bɔ́ |
| kɔɡ͡ba².³ |
| kuɡ͡bua |
| kóɡ͡ba |
| kʊ́ɡ͡bá |
| kʊɡ͡ba³³ |
| ɓaɖa-bùè |
| vù |
| báɽápʰùwe |
| ɓaɖabùè |
| pue |
| pù |
| pù |
| pù |
| fù |
| pù |
| puè |
| punn |
| pùèè |
| pùè |
| bue44 |
| puue3 |
Comparison of numerals in Kru languages from Marchese (1983):
|
| karkʷḛ |
| juyugbo |
| kɔ̀lɛwúlú |
| |
| gwlīǹgbī |
| |
| gʊ́lúgbɨ́ |
| gʷʉ̍lɪ̍n̄gbɨ̍ |
| gʷʌ̀lɪ̀gbʉ̄ |
| gʊ̀lɪ̀ɲ́gbɨ́ |
| gʷlɪ̀gbɪ́ |
| wlʊ̄mù |
| hɔ̰́dɔ̀ |
| |
| wlɪ̄ m̄ |
| húbū |
| gòléhm̄ |
| wɛ̀srɛ̍wɛ̍ |
| km̄ɛ̰̍dūe̍ |
| glàmùu̍ |
| km̄ɛ̍du̍e̍ |
| kɛ̰ɛ̰ |
Body parts (head)
Parts of the head from Marchese (1983):
|
| ko̰ |
| mu |
| wɔ̰̀ |
| mʌ́ |
| nɪ̄ |
| nɪ̄ |
| ŋō |
| nu̍ə̍ |
| nə̄ |
| nə́ |
| né |
| wɔ̰̄ |
| wɔ̰ |
| wɔ̰̄ḭ́ |
| wṵ̍t |
| ŋwúnɔ̄ |
| ŋu |
| wṵ́ |
| ŋɔ̰̄ |
| ŋwɔ̰̄ |
| ŋwɔ̰̄ |
| |
Body parts (lower)
Other body parts from Marchese (1983):
|
| |
| kʊkɔ |
| kṵ᷆ |
| |
| kpʊ̄kpā |
| fu̍ |
| |
| ku̍ |
| kpʊ̄kpʌ |
| |
| kpʊ̄kpā |
| kū |
| ku |
| |
| kɔ̀ ~ kɔ̍; kɔ̍ ~ kɔ̀ |
| fe᷄ |
| |
| kɔ̀ |
| kū |
| kù |
| kū |
| ku |
Other nouns
Miscellaneous nouns from Marchese (1983):
|
| y̰i |
| |
| ɲɛlɛ̰ |
| ɲrɪ |
| ŋlɪ́ |
| |
| ŋʉ̍nɪ̍ |
| ŋʉ́l̰ɪ́ |
| ŋʉ́nʉ́ |
| ŋɨ́nɨ́ |
| ylɪ́ |
| ɲnɛ᷄ |
| ŋɛ́nɛ́ |
| ŋɛ́lɛ́ |
| dʊ́ |
| ɲéné |
| ɲíró̰ |
| ɲl̰ɔ̰́ |
| ɲnɪ̰̍ |
| ɲéné |
| ɲnḛ̍ |
| ɲi |
Nature
Nature-related words from Marchese (1983):
|
| |
| trʊ |
| kìyɔ̀ |
| |
| glī |
| |
| gʉ́ɓɨ́ |
| gɨ̍ɓɨ̍ |
| gɨ̀ɗɨ̀ |
| gʉ̀lʉ̀ |
| gūu̍ |
| to̰᷄ |
| tɔ̃́ |
| tó̰ |
| tá |
| ta᷄ |
| |
| tá |
| tɔ̰̍ |
| tɔ̰̄ |
| tɔ̰̍ |
| ta |
Verbs (1)
Some basic verbs from Marchese (1983):
|
| bɛ(bla) |
| yi |
| yì |
| jī |
| ci̍ |
| yi̍ |
| jí |
| yī |
| yī |
| yī |
| yī |
| jí |
| dyi |
| yi |
| di̍ré |
| dí |
| dó |
| di̍rè |
| jī |
| yī |
| jī |
| jlo |
Verbs (2)
Other basic verbs from Marchese (1983):
|
| gʸai ɲḛ |
| |
| fa᷆doyo |
| |
| ɓlɪ̄ |
| ɓlɪ̍ |
| blɪ̄ |
| ɓʉ̄lɪ̄ |
| ɓʉ̄lɪ̄ |
| ɓlɪ̄ |
| ɓlɪ̄ |
| blē |
| ɓeɖe |
| ɓēlē |
| bre̍ |
| blé |
| bəlɛ |
| bre̍wlà |
| ble̍ |
| ɓlē |
| ble̍ |
| ble |
Reconstruction
According to Marchese Zogbo (2012), Proto-Kru had:[Marchese Zogbo, Lynell. 2012. Kru revisited, Kru revealed . Paper presented at the International Congress "Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction," Paris, 18‒21 September. ( Abstract )]
-
phonemic nasalized vowels
-
four level tones
-
*CVCV-(C)V and probably *CVV syllable structure. *CCV syllables, and possibly also *CVV syllables, are derived from *CVCV roots.
-
SVO word order, but with much OV typology
-
suffixing morphology
-
perfective and imperfective aspects
Proto-Kru consonants (Marchese Zogbo 2012):
Derived consonants:
-
/ɟ/ is likely derived via palatalization (*g > ɟ), e.g. *gie > ɟie.
-
*c, *ɲ, *kʷ, *gʷ, *ŋʷ are derived from alveolar or velar consonants preceding high back or high front vowels.
-
/ɗ/ is likely derived from *l.
Proto-Kru vowels (Marchese Zogbo 2012):
There is a clear bipartite division between Western and Eastern Kru marked by phonological and lexical distinctions. Some isoglosses between Western Kru and Eastern Kru:
-
Westerman, Diedrich Hermann (1952) Languages of West Africa (Part II). London/New York/Toronto: Oxford University Press.
External links
